Laser cutter workers had higher carbonyls and phenols exposure than other workers. The introduction of lasers as a cutting tool has become an important step in achieving further cost reductions in the multi-functional optical film industry. However, the fumes produced during laser cutting causes an annoying and often unbearable odor in the working environment.
To date, little research has been reported in terms of the worker exposure assessment and odorous substances generated in the process of cutting plastics with lasers. This study firstly investigated the worker exposure assessment and the protection efficiency of the carbonyls and phenols when a laser is used to cut polycarbonate PC and polyethylene terephthalate PET , the primary base materials used in optical film industry. Exposure to this heavy metal has also been associated with the development of acute myeloid and lymphoblastic leukemia.
These results suggested a role of nickel in acute leukemia by inducing oxidative damage as a mechanism of action [84]. Research has also revealed the presence of elevated nickel concentrations in individuals with exocrine pan- creatic cancer [15].
Although there were other heavy metals present, these findings suggest carcinogenic action from nickel [15]. Another study proposed a link between chronic allergic stimulation from several heavy metals, including nickel, and the development of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma [85].
Furthermore, significant correlation was observed between exposure and mortality rates of liver cancer [13]. Nickel has an extensive range of carcinogenic mechanisms. One such mechanism involves its role in affecting the expression of specific long noncoding RNAs. It has been determined that nickel possesses the ability to induce the downregulation of maternally expressed gene 3 MEG3 through the methylation of its related promoter [81].
It has also been demonstrated that nickel can gen- erate free radicals, which contributes to the carcinogenic process [86]. Exposure to this heavy metal also has the ability to alter the regulation status for the transcription of various mRNAs and microRNAs [78]. The expression of these transcripts has roles in immunity as well as inflammation, which both have proposed roles in the development of malignant growth [78].
It was concluded that exposure elevated expression of proteins SQSTM1 and TNF, which have roles in maintaining levels of inflammation, and induced carcinogenesis [82]. Like other heavy metals, nickel has the potential to induce epigenetic changes such as alterations in DNA methylation. This process has been correlated with inappropriate transcriptional activation, which suggests another carcinogenic mechanism for nickel [87].
Compared to other heavy metals, the use of chelators involving nickel has been markedly different. Sodium diethyldithiocarbamate has proven to be an effective chelator in response to nickel carbonyl, but a chelator associated with nickel cancer has not been recom- mended at this point [88].
Despite this fact, there has been research into the use of chelators to remove nickel from the environment. For instance, it was observed that ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid EDTA induces the uptake of nickel from contaminated soil in Arundo donax L. This carries tremendous potential for use in areas where nickel is present in dangerous concentrations. It was also determined that CaNa 2 EDTA reverses the damage induced by nickel chloride as well as eliminate the metal from Cirrhinus mrigala [90].
Radium Radium is a radioactive heavy metal that can negatively impact health. This ionizing radia- tion results from radium decaying into toxic radon gas [91]. Occupational and environ- mental presence of radium generates opportunities for exposure to ionizing radiation. Coal mining has been noted as one of the most relevant occupations with risk for exposure [92].
Wastewater drained from mines also carries potential for environmental radium contamina- tion [92]. Radium presents further occupational hazards from exposure sources that include soil, building materials and water systems [93]. A study performed in Italy suggested radon gas tends to concentrate in confined spaces of buildings, such as basements or storage areas [91].
Radium is a known carcinogen that is associated with several cancers. Since a primary method of exposure to radon gas has been identified as inhalation, radium has been strongly corre- lated with the development of lung cancer [91]. Due to the radioactive nature of this metal, chelators are generally not necessary. Nevertheless, it has been determined to have several unique uses. For example, radium has been used as a therapy for patients with ankylosing spondylitis. However, injection of this metal was determined to be associated with increased risk of various forms of leukemia [94].
Injection of mice with radium was determined to cause the generation of osteosarcomas [94]. In another particular case, it was proposed that a patient developed a cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in response to treatment with radium that extravasated [95].
This study suggested that patients with extravasated radioactive sub- stances require the oversight of a dermatologist [95]. Conclusion Heavy metals exhibit an immense range of toxic effects in humans with regard to carcino- genesis. The research available at this point has illuminated several areas of emphasis for future work. It is clear that a refined understanding of carcinogenic mechanisms is necessary. This could help generate personalized therapeutic or prevention measures for specific heavy metals.
Continued consolidation of information is another essential factor moving forward. Effective educational programs are also needed in high-risk areas to raise awareness of the risks associated with exposure to heavy metals. Author details Austin Carver and Vincent S. Aluminium chloride promotes tumori- genesis and metastasis in normal murine mammary gland epithelial cells.
International Journal of Cancer. DOI: Aluminium and the human breast. Effects of aluminium chloride and aluminium chlorohydrate on DNA repair in MCF10A immortalised non-transformed human breast epithelial cells. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. Heavy metal bio- accumulation in an atypical primitive neuroectodermal tumor of the abdominal wall. Ultrastructural Pathology. Quantitative evaluation of heavy metals and trace elements in the urinary bladder: Comparison between cancerous, adjacent non-cancerous and normal cadav- eric tissue.
Biological Trace Element Research. Aluminum chelation: Chemistry, clinical, and experimental studies and the search for alternatives to desferrioxamine. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Membrane technology applied to acid mine drainage from copper mining. Water Science and Technology. Arsenic exposure and the induction of human cancers.
Journal of Toxicology. Effects of arsenic toxicity beyond epigenetic modifications. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. Mitigating dietary arsenic exposure: Current status in the United States and recommendations for an improved path forward. Science of the Total Environment. The carcinogenicity of arsenic. Environmental Health Perspectives. Association of soil arsenic and nickel exposure with cancer mortality rates, a town-scale ecological study in Suzhou, China.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research. Kidney cadmium toxicity, diabetes and high blood pres- sure: The perfect storm. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. Pancreatic cancer risk and levels of trace elements. M2 polarization of macrophages facilitates arsenic-induced cell transformation of lung epithelial cells.
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